Up Until the Dedefinition Period Art Fell Into Three Categories

Art of the Byzantine Empire

Byzantine art comprises the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire,^[1] besides as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the decline of Rome and lasted until the Autumn of Constantinople in 1453,^[2] the start engagement of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if all the same imprecise. Many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the Islamic states of the eastern Mediterranean, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.

A number of gimmicky states with the Byzantine Empire were culturally influenced by it without really being part of it (the "Byzantine democracy"). These included the Rus, as well every bit some non-Orthodox states similar the Republic of Venice, which separated from the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century, and the Kingdom of Sicily, which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire and had besides been a Byzantine territory until the tenth century with a big Greek-speaking population persisting into the 12th century. Other states having a Byzantine artistic tradition, had oscillated throughout the Middle Ages between being office of the Byzantine Empire and having periods of independence, such as Serbia and Republic of bulgaria. Subsequently the fall of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire was often chosen "post-Byzantine." Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church building compages, are maintained in Greece, Cyprus, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Russian federation and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day.

Introduction [edit]

Byzantine art originated and evolved from the Christianized Greek civilization of the Eastern Roman Empire; content from both Christianity and classical Greek mythology were artistically expressed through Hellenistic modes of style and iconography.^[3] The art of Byzantium never lost sight of its classical heritage; the Byzantine upper-case letter, Constantinople, was adorned with a big number of classical sculptures,^[4] although they somewhen became an object of some puzzlement for its inhabitants^[5] (nevertheless, Byzantine beholders showed no signs of puzzlement towards other forms of classical media such every bit wall paintings^{[half dozen]}). The basis of Byzantine fine art is a fundamental artistic attitude held by the Byzantine Greeks who, like their ancient Greek predecessors, "were never satisfied with a play of forms alone, but stimulated by an innate rationalism, endowed forms with life by associating them with a meaningful content."^[7] Although the fine art produced in the Byzantine Empire was marked by periodic revivals of a classical aesthetic, it was to a higher place all marked by the evolution of a new aesthetic defined past its salient "abstract", or anti-naturalistic grapheme. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine fine art seems to have abandoned this try in favor of a more than symbolic arroyo.

The Ethiopian Saint Arethas depicted in traditional Byzantine manner (10th century)

The nature and causes of this transformation, which largely took place during belatedly antiquity, take been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries.^[8] Giorgio Vasari attributed it to a decline in artistic skills and standards, which had in turn been revived by his contemporaries in the Italian Renaissance. Although this point of view has been occasionally revived, near notably by Bernard Berenson,^[ix] modern scholars tend to take a more positive view of the Byzantine aesthetic. Alois Riegl and Josef Strzygowski, writing in the early on 20th century, were above all responsible for the revaluation of late antique art.^[ten] Riegl saw it every bit a natural development of pre-existing tendencies in Roman fine art, whereas Strzygowski viewed it every bit a product of "oriental" influences. Notable recent contributions to the debate include those of Ernst Kitzinger,^[11] who traced a "dialectic" between "abstruse" and "Hellenistic" tendencies in late antiquity, and John Onians,^[12] who saw an "increase in visual response" in late artifact, through which a viewer "could expect at something which was in twentieth-century terms purely abstract and discover information technology representational."

In any case, the argue is purely modern: information technology is clear that most Byzantine viewers did not consider their fine art to be abstract or unnaturalistic. As Cyril Mango has observed, "our own appreciation of Byzantine fine art stems largely from the fact that this art is not naturalistic; yet the Byzantines themselves, judging by their extant statements, regarded it as being highly naturalistic and as being directly in the tradition of Phidias, Apelles, and Zeuxis."^[13]

Frescoes in Nerezi near Skopje (1164), with their unique blend of loftier tragedy, gentle humanity, and homespun realism, anticipate the approach of Giotto and other proto-Renaissance Italian artists.

The subject area affair of monumental Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial: the two themes are often combined, as in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors that decorated the interior of the sixth-century church building of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. These preoccupations are partly a result of the pious and autocratic nature of Byzantine gild, and partly a consequence of its economic construction: the wealth of the empire was concentrated in the easily of the church and the imperial office, which had the greatest opportunity to undertake awe-inspiring artistic commissions.

Religious art was non, however, limited to the monumental decoration of church interiors. One of the most of import genres of Byzantine art was the icon, an image of Christ, the Virgin, or a saint, used as an object of veneration in Orthodox churches and individual homes akin. Icons were more religious than artful in nature: specially after the end of iconoclasm, they were understood to manifest the unique "presence" of the figure depicted by means of a "likeness" to that figure maintained through carefully maintained canons of representation.^[14]

The illumination of manuscripts was another major genre of Byzantine fine art. The nigh unremarkably illustrated texts were religious, both scripture itself (particularly the Psalms) and devotional or theological texts (such as the Ladder of Divine Ascent of John Climacus or the homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus). Secular texts were besides illuminated: important examples include the Alexander Romance and the history of John Skylitzes.

The Byzantines inherited the Early Christian distrust of monumental sculpture in religious fine art, and produced but reliefs, of which very few survivals are anything similar life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from Carolingian art onwards. Pocket-sized ivories were also mostly in relief.

The so-called "modest arts" were very of import in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief equally formal presentation Consular diptychs or caskets such as the Veroli casket, hardstone carvings, enamels, glass, jewelry, metalwork, and figured silks were produced in big quantities throughout the Byzantine era. Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or not-representational decoration were produced: for case, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, equally pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off Byzantine silver.

Periods [edit]

Byzantine art and architecture is divided into four periods by convention: the Early period, commencing with the Edict of Milan (when Christian worship was legitimized) and the transfer of the imperial seat to Constantinople, extends to AD 842, with the conclusion of Iconoclasm; the Middle, or high period, begins with the restoration of the icons in 843 and culminates in the Autumn of Constantinople to the Crusaders in 1204; the Tardily menstruation includes the eclectic osmosis betwixt Western European and traditional Byzantine elements in art and compages, and ends with the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The term post-Byzantine is then used for after years, whereas "Neo-Byzantine" is used for art and architecture from the 19th century onwards, when the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire prompted a renewed appreciation of Byzantium by artists and historians alike.

Early Byzantine art [edit]

Two events were of fundamental importance to the development of a unique, Byzantine art. First, the Edict of Milan, issued by the emperors Constantine I and Licinius in 313, allowed for public Christian worship, and led to the development of a monumental, Christian fine art. 2nd, the dedication of Constantinople in 330 created a great new artistic center for the eastern half of the Empire, and a specifically Christian i. Other artistic traditions flourished in rival cities such as Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, but it was non until all of these cities had fallen - the first two to the Arabs and Rome to the Goths - that Constantinople established its supremacy.

Constantine devoted great effort to the decoration of Constantinople, adorning its public spaces with aboriginal statuary,^[fifteen] and building a forum dominated by a porphyry column that carried a statue of himself.^[xvi] Major Constantinopolitan churches congenital under Constantine and his son, Constantius II, included the original foundations of Hagia Sophia and the Church building of the Holy Apostles.^[17]

The next major building campaign in Constantinople was sponsored by Theodosius I. The virtually of import surviving monument of this period is the obelisk and base of operations erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome^[18] which, with the large silver dish called the Missorium of Theodosius I, represents the classic examples of what is sometimes chosen the "Theodosian Renaissance". The earliest surviving church building in Constantinople is the Basilica of St. John at the Stoudios Monastery, built in the fifth century.^[nineteen]

Miniatures of the sixth-century Rabula Gospel (a Byzantine Syriac Gospel) display the more abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art

Due to subsequent rebuilding and destruction, relatively few Constantinopolitan monuments of this early on period survive. Still, the development of monumental early Byzantine art can withal be traced through surviving structures in other cities. For instance, important early churches are constitute in Rome (including Santa Sabina and Santa Maria Maggiore),^[20] and in Thessaloniki (the Rotunda and the Acheiropoietos Basilica).^[21]

A number of important illuminated manuscripts, both sacred and secular, survive from this early period. Classical authors, including Virgil (represented past the Vergilius Vaticanus^[22] and the Vergilius Romanus)^[23] and Homer (represented past the Ambrosian Iliad), were illustrated with narrative paintings. Illuminated biblical manuscripts of this period survive only in fragments: for example, the Quedlinburg Itala fragment is a small portion of what must have been a lavishly illustrated copy of 1 Kings.^[24]

Early Byzantine fine art was also marked by the cultivation of ivory carving.^[25] Ivory diptychs, often elaborately decorated, were issued as gifts past newly appointed consuls.^[26] Silver plates were another important form of luxury art:^[27] amidst the most lavish from this period is the Missorium of Theodosius I.^[28] Sarcophagi continued to be produced in great numbers.

Age of Justinian I [edit]

Mosaic from San Vitale in Ravenna, showing the Emperor Justinian and Bishop Maximian, surrounded past clerics and soldiers.

Significant changes in Byzantine fine art coincided with the reign of Justinian I (527–565). Justinian devoted much of his reign to reconquering Italy, Northward Africa and Spain. He also laid the foundations of the imperial absolutism of the Byzantine land, codifying its laws and imposing his religious views on all his subjects by law.^[29]

A meaning component of Justinian's project of imperial renovation was a massive edifice program, which was described in a book, the Buildings, written by Justinian's courtroom historian, Procopius.^[30] Justinian renovated, rebuilt, or founded anew countless churches within Constantinople, including Hagia Sophia,^[31] which had been destroyed during the Nika riots, the Church of the Holy Apostles,^[32] and the Church building of Saints Sergius and Bacchus.^[33] Justinian also built a number of churches and fortifications outside of the majestic capital, including Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt,^[34] Basilica of Saint Sofia in Sofia and the Basilica of St. John in Ephesus.^[35]

Several major churches of this period were built in the provinces by local bishops in faux of the new Constantinopolitan foundations. The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, was built by Bishop Maximianus. The decoration of San Vitale includes important mosaics of Justinian and his empress, Theodora, although neither ever visited the church.^[36] Also of note is the Euphrasian Basilica in Poreč.^[37]

Recent archeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries unearthed a big group of Early on Byzantine mosaics in the Eye East. The eastern provinces of the Eastern Roman and afterward the Byzantine Empires inherited a potent artistic tradition from Late Antiquity. Christian mosaic art flourished in this area from the 4th century onwards. The tradition of making mosaics was carried on in the Umayyad era until the end of the 8th century. The most important surviving examples are the Madaba Map, the mosaics of Mount Nebo, Saint Catherine's Monastery and the Church of St Stephen in ancient Kastron Mefaa (at present Umm ar-Rasas).

The first fully preserved illuminated biblical manuscripts engagement to the outset half of the 6th century, most notably the Vienna Genesis,^[38] the Rossano Gospels,^[39] and the Sinope Gospels.^[40] The Vienna Dioscurides is a lavishly illustrated botanical treatise, presented equally a gift to the Byzantine aristocrat Julia Anicia.^[41]

Important ivory sculptures of this menses include the Barberini ivory, which probably depicts Justinian himself,^[42] and the Archangel ivory in the British Museum.^[43] Silver plate continued to be decorated with scenes drawn from classical mythology; for case, a plate in the Cabinet des Médailles, Paris, depicts Hercules wrestling the Nemean lion.^[44]

Seventh-century crisis [edit]

The Age of Justinian was followed by a political decline, since almost of Justinian'south conquests were lost and the Empire faced acute crisis with the invasions of the Avars, Slavs, Persians and Arabs in the 7th century. Constantinople was also wracked by religious and political disharmonize.^[45]

The well-nigh significant surviving monumental projects of this period were undertaken outside of the imperial capital. The church of Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki was rebuilt after a fire in the mid-seventh century. The new sections include mosaics executed in a remarkably abstract mode.^[46] The church of the Koimesis in Nicaea (present-day Iznik), destroyed in the early 20th century but documented through photographs, demonstrates the simultaneous survival of a more classical style of church ornament.^[47] The churches of Rome, still a Byzantine territory in this period, also include of import surviving decorative programs, peculiarly Santa Maria Antiqua, Sant'Agnese fuori le mura, and the Chapel of San Venanzio in San Giovanni in Laterano.^[48] Byzantine mosaicists probably also contributed to the ornamentation of the early Umayyad monuments, including the Dome of the Stone in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Damascus.^[49]

Important works of luxury fine art from this flow include the silverish David Plates, produced during the reign of Emperor Heraclius, and depicting scenes from the life of the Hebrew male monarch David.^[50] The most notable surviving manuscripts are Syriac gospel books, such as the so-called Syriac Bible of Paris.^[51] However, the London Catechism Tables deport witness to the standing production of lavish gospel books in Greek.^[52]

The period between Justinian and iconoclasm saw major changes in the social and religious roles of images within Byzantium. The veneration of acheiropoieta, or holy images "non fabricated by human hands," became a pregnant miracle, and in some instances these images were credited with saving cities from armed forces assault. By the end of the 7th century, certain images of saints had come to be viewed as "windows" through which one could communicate with the figure depicted. Proskynesis before images is also attested in texts from the tardily seventh century. These developments mark the beginnings of a theology of icons.^[53]

At the same time, the argue over the proper part of fine art in the decoration of churches intensified. Three canons of the Quinisext Council of 692 addressed controversies in this area: prohibition of the representation of the cantankerous on church pavements (Catechism 73), prohibition of the representation of Christ as a lamb (Canon 82), and a full general injunction against "pictures, whether they are in paintings or in what mode so ever, which attract the center and corrupt the heed, and incite it to the awakening of base pleasures" (Canon 100).

Crisis of iconoclasm [edit]

Helios in his chariot, surrounded by symbols of the months and of the zodiac. From Vat. Gr. 1291, the "Handy Tables" of Ptolemy, produced during the reign of Constantine Five

Intense fence over the role of fine art in worship led somewhen to the period of "Byzantine iconoclasm."^[54] Desultory outbreaks of iconoclasm on the part of local bishops are attested in Asia Minor during the 720s. In 726, an underwater convulsion between the islands of Thera and Therasia was interpreted by Emperor Leo 3 as a sign of God'south anger, and may take led Leo to remove a famous icon of Christ from the Chalke Gate outside the purple palace.^[55] Yet, iconoclasm probably did not become majestic policy until the reign of Leo'south son, Constantine V. The Council of Hieria, convened under Constantine in 754, proscribed the manufacture of icons of Christ. This inaugurated the Iconoclastic period, which lasted, with interruptions, until 843.

While iconoclasm severely restricted the part of religious art, and led to the removal of some earlier apse mosaics and (possibly) the sporadic destruction of portable icons, it never constituted a total ban on the production of figural art. Ample literary sources signal that secular art (i.east. hunting scenes and depictions of the games in the hippodrome) continued to be produced,^[56] and the few monuments that can be securely dated to the catamenia (most notably the manuscript of Ptolemy'due south "Handy Tables" today held past the Vatican^[57]) demonstrate that metropolitan artists maintained a high quality of product.^[58]

Major churches dating to this catamenia include Hagia Eirene in Constantinople, which was rebuilt in the 760s post-obit its destruction by the 740 Constantinople convulsion. The interior of Hagia Eirene, which is dominated by a big mosaic cross in the alcove, is one of the best-preserved examples of iconoclastic church decoration.^[59] The church of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki was also rebuilt in the late eighth century.^[threescore]

Sure churches built outside of the empire during this flow, just busy in a figural, "Byzantine," way, may as well evidence to the continuing activities of Byzantine artists. Particularly important in this regard are the original mosaics of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (since either destroyed or heavily restored) and the frescoes in the Church building of Maria foris portas in Castelseprio.

Macedonian fine art [edit]

The rulings of the Council of Hieria were reversed by a new church council in 843, historic to this day in the Eastern Orthodox Church equally the "Triumph of Orthodoxy." In 867, the installation of a new alcove mosaic in Hagia Sophia depicting the Virgin and Child was historic past the Patriarch Photios in a famous homily as a victory over the evils of iconoclasm. Later in the same year, the Emperor Basil I, called "the Macedonian," acceded to the throne; as a upshot the following period of Byzantine art has sometimes been called the "Macedonian Renaissance", although the term is doubly problematic (information technology was neither "Macedonian", nor, strictly speaking, a "Renaissance").

In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Empire'southward military situation improved, and patronage of art and architecture increased. New churches were commissioned, and the standard architectural form (the "cross-in-square") and decorative scheme of the Middle Byzantine church were standardised. Major surviving examples include Hosios Loukas in Boeotia, the Daphni Monastery near Athens and Nea Moni on Chios.

There was a revival of involvement in the delineation of subjects from classical Greek mythology (every bit on the Veroli Casket) and in the apply of a "classical" Hellenistic styles to depict religious, and particularly Old Attestation, subjects (of which the Paris Psalter and the Joshua Roll are important examples).

The Macedonian period also saw a revival of the tardily antiquarian technique of ivory carving. Many ornate ivory triptychs and diptychs survive, such as the Harbaville Triptych and a triptych at Luton Hoo, dating from the reign of Nicephorus Phocas.

Komnenian age [edit]

The Macedonian emperors were followed past the Komnenian dynasty, first with the reign of Alexios I Komnenos in 1081. Byzantium had recently suffered a period of severe dislocation following the Boxing of Manzikert in 1071 and the subsequent loss of Asia Minor to the Turks. Nonetheless, the Komnenoi brought stability to the empire (1081–1185) and during the course of the twelfth century their energetic campaigning did much to restore the fortunes of the empire. The Komnenoi were great patrons of the arts, and with their support Byzantine artists continued to move in the management of greater humanism and emotion, of which the Theotokos of Vladimir, the cycle of mosaics at Daphni, and the murals at Nerezi yield important examples. Ivory sculpture and other expensive mediums of art gradually gave mode to frescoes and icons, which for the starting time time gained widespread popularity across the Empire. Apart from painted icons, in that location were other varieties - notably the mosaic and ceramic ones.

Some of the finest Byzantine work of this period may exist found outside the Empire: in the mosaics of Gelati, Kiev, Torcello, Venice, Monreale, Cefalù and Palermo. For case, Venice's Basilica of St Marking, begun in 1063, was based on the great Church building of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, now destroyed, and is thus an echo of the age of Justinian. The acquisitive habits of the Venetians mean that the basilica is too a corking museum of Byzantine artworks of all kinds (eastward.k., Pala d'Oro).

Ivory caskets of the Macedonian era (Gallery) [edit]

• 

• 

  11th-12th century, Museo Nazionale d'Arte Medievale east Moderna (Arezzo)

Palaeologan historic period [edit]

The Annunciation from Ohrid, one of the most admired icons of the Paleologan mannerism, bears comparing with the finest gimmicky works by Italian artists

Centuries of continuous Roman political tradition and Hellenistic civilization underwent a crisis in 1204 with the sacking of Constantinople past the Venetian and French knights of the Fourth Crusade, a disaster from which the Empire recovered in 1261 albeit in a severely weakened state. The devastation past sack or subsequent fail of the city's secular architecture in particular has left us with an imperfect understanding of Byzantine art.

Although the Byzantines regained the urban center in 1261, the Empire was thereafter a minor and weak state confined to the Greek peninsula and the islands of the Aegean. During their half-century of exile, however, the last great flowing of Anatolian Hellenism began. As Nicaea emerged every bit the center of opposition under the Laskaris emperors, it spawned a renaissance, attracting scholars, poets, and artists from beyond the Byzantine world. A glittering court emerged equally the dispossessed intelligentsia found in the Hellenic side of their traditions a pride and identity unsullied by association with the hated "latin" enemy.^[61] With the recapture of the majuscule under the new Palaeologan Dynasty, Byzantine artists developed a new interest in landscapes and pastoral scenes, and the traditional mosaic-work (of which the Chora Church building in Constantinople is the finest extant instance) gradually gave way to detailed cycles of narrative frescoes (every bit evidenced in a large group of Mystras churches). The icons, which became a favoured medium for artistic expression, were characterized by a less ascetic attitude, new appreciation for purely decorative qualities of painting and meticulous attention to details, earning the popular name of the Paleologan Mannerism for the flow in general.

Venice came to control Byzantine Crete by 1212, and Byzantine creative traditions continued long later the Ottoman conquest of the terminal Byzantine successor state in 1461. The Cretan school, as it is today known, gradually introduced Western elements into its style, and exported large numbers of icons to the West. The tradition's most famous creative person was El Greco.^{[62] [63]}

Legacy [edit]

The splendour of Byzantine art was always in the mind of early on medieval Western artists and patrons, and many of the most important movements in the period were witting attempts to produce art fit to stand next to both classical Roman and contemporary Byzantine art. This was especially the example for the purple Carolingian art and Ottonian art. Luxury products from the Empire were highly valued, and reached for example the royal Anglo-Saxon Sutton Hoo burial in Suffolk of the 620s, which contains several pieces of silver. Byzantine silks were especially valued and large quantities were distributed every bit diplomatic gifts from Constantinople. In that location are records of Byzantine artists working in the Due west, especially during the menstruation of iconoclasm, and some works, like the frescos at Castelseprio and miniatures in the Vienna Coronation Gospels, seem to accept been produced by such figures.

In item, teams of mosaic artists were dispatched every bit diplomatic gestures by emperors to Italian republic, where they often trained locals to go along their work in a mode heavily influenced by Byzantium. Venice and Norman Sicily were particular centres of Byzantine influence. The primeval surviving console paintings in the West were in a style heavily influenced by contemporary Byzantine icons, until a distinctive Western style began to develop in Italy in the Trecento; the traditional and still influential narrative of Vasari and others has the story of Western painting begin as a breakaway past Cimabue then Giotto from the shackles of the Byzantine tradition. In general, Byzantine creative influence on Europe was in steep decline by the 14th century if non earlier, despite the connected importance of migrated Byzantine scholars in the Renaissance in other areas.

Islamic fine art began with artists and craftsmen mostly trained in Byzantine styles, and though figurative content was profoundly reduced, Byzantine decorative styles remained a neat influence on Islamic fine art, and Byzantine artists connected to be imported for of import works for some time, especially for mosaics.

The Byzantine era properly defined came to an stop with the autumn of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, but by this fourth dimension the Byzantine cultural heritage had been widely diffused, carried by the spread of Orthodox Christianity, to Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania and, most importantly, to Russia, which became the centre of the Orthodox earth post-obit the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. Even nether Ottoman rule, Byzantine traditions in icon-painting and other small-calibration arts survived, especially in the Venetian-ruled Crete and Rhodes, where a "post-Byzantine" style under increasing Western influence survived for a further two centuries, producing artists including El Greco whose grooming was in the Cretan School which was the well-nigh vigorous post-Byzantine school, exporting groovy numbers of icons to Europe. The willingness of the Cretan School to accept Western influence was atypical; in most of the mail service-Byzantine world "as an instrument of ethnic cohesiveness, art became assertively conservative during the Turcocratia" (menses of Ottoman dominion).^[64]

Russian icon painting began by entirely adopting and imitating Byzantine fine art, as did the art of other Orthodox nations, and has remained extremely conservative in iconography, although its painting style has adult singled-out characteristics, including influences from postal service-Renaissance Western art. All the Eastern Orthodox churches take remained highly protective of their traditions in terms of the form and content of images and, for example, modern Orthodox depictions of the Nativity of Christ vary little in content from those developed in the sixth century.

See also [edit]

• Byzantine illuminated manuscripts
• Byzantine compages
• Byzantine mosaics
• Macedonian art (Byzantine)
• Byzantine Iconoclasm
• Sacred art
• Book of Chore in Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Michelis 1946; Weitzmann 1981.
2. ^ Kitzinger 1977, pp. one‒iii.
3. ^ Michelis 1946; Ainalov 1961, "Introduction", pp. 3‒8; Stylianou & Stylianou 1985, p. 19; Hanfmann 1962, "Early Christian Sculpture", p. 42 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHanfmann1962 (help); Weitzmann 1984.
4. ^ Bassett 2004.
5. ^ Cyril 1965, pp. 53‒75 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCyril1965 (help).
6. ^ Ainalov 1961, "The Hellenistic Character of Byzantine Wall Painting", pp. 185‒214.
7. ^ Weitzmann 1981, p. 350.
8. ^ Brendel 1979.
9. ^ Berenson 1954.
10. ^ Elsner 2002, pp. 358‒379.
11. ^ Kitzinger 1977.
12. ^ Onians 1980, pp. 1‒23.
13. ^ Mango 1963, p. 65.
14. ^ Belting & Jephcott 1994 harvnb fault: no target: CITEREFBeltingJephcott1994 (help).
15. ^ Bassett 2004.
16. ^ Fowden 1991, pp. 119‒131; Bauer 1996.
17. ^ Mathews 1971; Henck 2001, pp. 279‒304
18. ^ Kiilerich 1998.
19. ^ Mathews 1971.
20. ^ Krautheimer 2000.
21. ^ Spieser 1984; Ćurčić 2000.
22. ^ Wright 1993.
23. ^ Wright 2001.
24. ^ Levin 1985.
25. ^ Volbach 1976.
26. ^ Delbrueck 1929.
27. ^ Dodd 1961.
28. ^ Almagro-Gorbea 2000.
29. ^ Maas 2005.
30. ^ Tr. H.B. Dewing, Procopius VII (Cambridge, 1962).
31. ^ Mainstone 1997.
32. ^ Dark & Özgümüş 2002, pp. 393‒413.
33. ^ Bardill 2000, pp. 1‒11; Mathews 2005.
34. ^ Forsyth & Weitzmann 1973.
35. ^ Thiel 2005.
36. ^ Deichmann 1969.
37. ^ Eufrasiana Basilica Projection.
38. ^ Wellesz 1960.
39. ^ Cavallo 1992.
40. ^ Grabar 1948.
41. ^ Mazal 1998.
42. ^ Cutler 1993, pp. 329‒339.
43. ^ Wright 1986, pp. 75‒79.
44. ^ photo of the plate
45. ^ Haldon 1997.
46. ^ Brubaker 2004, pp. 63‒90.
47. ^ Barber 1991, pp. 43‒lx.
48. ^ Matthiae 1987.
49. ^ Creswell 1969; Overflowing 2001.
50. ^ Leader 2000, pp. 407‒427.
51. ^ Leroy 1964.
52. ^ Nordenfalk 1938.
53. ^ Brubaker 1998, pp. 1215‒1254.
54. ^ Bryer & Herrin 1977; Brubaker & Haldon 2001.
55. ^ Stein 1980; The story of the Chalke Icon may be a later invention: Auzépy 1990, pp. 445‒492.
56. ^ Grabar 1984.
57. ^ Wright 1985, pp. 355‒362.
58. ^ Bryer & Herrin 1977, Robin Cormack, "The Arts during the Age of Iconoclasm".
59. ^ Peschlow 1977.
60. ^ Theocharidou 1988.
61. ^ Ash 1995.
62. ^ Byron, Robert (Oct 1929). "Greco: The Epilogue to Byzantine Culture". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 55 (319): 160–174. JSTOR 864104.
63. ^ Procopiou, Angelo G. (March 1952). "El Greco and Cretan Painting". The Burlington Mag. 94 (588): 76–74. JSTOR 870678.
64. ^ Kessler 1988, p. 166.

References [edit]

• Ainalov, D.V. (1961). The Hellenistic Origins of Byzantine Art. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Printing.
• Almagro-Gorbea, M., ed. (2000). El Disco de Teodosio. Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia. ISBN9788489512603.
• Ash, John (1995). A Byzantine Journey . London: Random Firm Incorporated. ISBN9780679409342.
• Auzépy, 1000.-F. (1990). "La destruction de fifty'icône du Christ de la Chalcé par Léon Three: propagande ou réalité?". Byzantion. 60: 445‒492.
• Hairdresser, C. (1991). "The Koimesis Church, Nicaea: The Limits of Representation on the Eve of Iconoclasm". Jahrbuch der österreichischen Byzantinistik. 41: 43‒lx.
• Bardill, J. (2000). "The Church building of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople and the Monophysite Refugees". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 54: ane‒xi. doi:x.2307/1291830. JSTOR 1291830.
• Bassett, Sarah (2004). The Urban Paradigm of Late Antique Constantinople. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN9780521827232.
• Bauer, Franz Alto (1996). Stadt, Platz und Denkmal in der Spätantike. Mainz: P. von Zabern. ISBN9783805318426.
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Farther reading [edit]

• Alloa, Emmanuel (2013). "Visual Studies in Byzantium". Journal of Visual Culture. 12 (1): 3‒29. doi:ten.1177/1470412912468704. S2CID 191395643.
• Beckwith, John (1979). Early Christian and Byzantine Art (2nd ed.). Penguin History of Art. ISBN978-0140560336.
• Cormack, Robin (2000). Byzantine Art . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-284211-4.
• Cormack, Robin (1985). Writing in Gilt, Byzantine Gild and its Icons. London: George Philip. ISBN978-054001085-1.
• Eastmond, Antony (2013). The Glory of Byzantium and Early on Christendom. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN978-0714848105.
• Evans, Helen C., ed. (2004). Byzantium, Organized religion and Power (1261‒1557) . Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Printing. ISBN978-1588391148.
• Evans, Helen C. & Wixom, William D. (1997). The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Center Byzantine Era, A.D. 843‒1261. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. OCLC 853250638.
• Hurst, Ellen (eight August 2014). "A Beginner'due south Guide to Byzantine Art". Smarthistory. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
• James, Elizabeth (2007). Art and Text in Byzantine Culture (1 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-83409-4.
• Karahan, Anne (2015). "Patristics and Byzantine Meta-Images. Molding Belief in the Divine from Written to Painted Theology". In Harrison, Ballad; Bitton-Ashkelony, Brouria; De Bruyn, Théodore (eds.). Patristic Studies in the Twenty-First Century. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. pp. 551–576. ISBN978-2-503-55919-iii.
• Karahan, Anne (2010). Byzantine Holy Images – Transcendence and Immanence. The Theological Groundwork of the Iconography and Aesthetics of the Chora Church (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta No. 176). Leuven-Paris-Walpole, MA: Peeters Publishers. ISBN978-ninety-429-2080-4.
• Karahan, Anne (2016). "Byzantine Visual Culture. Conditions of "Correct" Belief and some Platonic Outlooks"". Numen: International Review for the History of Religions. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. 63 (ii–3): 210–244. doi:10.1163/15685276-12341421. ISSN 0029-5973.
• Karahan, Anne (2014). "Byzantine Iconoclasm: Ideology and Quest for Power". In Kolrud, K.; Prusac, 1000. (eds.). Iconoclasm from Antiquity to Modernity. Farnham Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. pp. 75‒94. ISBN978-i-4094-7033-five.
• Karahan, Anne (2015). "Chapter ten: The Touch on of Cappadocian Theology on Byzantine Aesthetics: Gregory of Nazianzus on the Unity and Singularity of Christ". In Dumitraşcu, N. (ed.). The Ecumenical Legacy of the Cappadocians. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 159‒184. ISBN978-i-137-51394-six.
• Karahan, Anne (2012). "Beauty in the Optics of God. Byzantine Aesthetics and Basil of Caesarea". Byzantion: Revue Internationale des Études Byzantines. 82: 165‒212. eISSN 2294-6209. ISSN 0378-2506. *Karahan, Anne (2013). "The Epitome of God in Byzantine Cappadocia and the Issue of Supreme Transcendence". Studia Patristica. 59: 97‒111. ISBN978-xc-429-2992-0.
• Karahan, Anne (2010). "The Issue of περιχώρησις in Byzantine Holy Images". Studia Patristica. 44: 27‒34. ISBN978-ninety-429-2370-6.
• Gerstel, Sharon E. J.; Lauffenburger, Julie A., eds. (2001). A Lost Art Rediscovered. Pennsylvania State University. ISBN978-0-271-02139-3.
• Mango, Cyril, ed. (1972). The Art of the Byzantine Empire, 312‒1453: Sources and Documents. Englewood Cliffs.
• Obolensky, Dimitri (1974) [1971]. The Byzantine Democracy: Eastern Europe, 500‒1453. London: Central. ISBN9780351176449.
• http://www.biblionet.gr/book/178713/Ανδρέου,_Ευάγγελος/Γεώργιος_Μάρκου_ο_ΑργείοςWeitzmann, Kurt, ed. (1979). Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early on Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

External links [edit]

• Byzantine Publications Online, freely bachelor for download from Dumbarton Oaks
• Lethaby, William (1911). "Byzantine Art". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). pp. 906–911.
• Eikonografos.com: Byzantine Icons and Mosaics Archived 2012-03-31 at the Wayback Auto
• Anthony Cutler on the economical history of Byzantine mosaics, wall-paintings and icons at Dumbarton Oaks.
• http://www.biblionet.gr/volume/178713/Ανδρέου,_Ευάγγελος/Γεώργιος_Μάρκου_ο_Αργείος

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art

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